Portrayal of the Enemy

As the common saying states, "history is determined by who writes it." The same can be said about all war literature. Because all humans have predispositions and unique experiences, they all will have different opinions regarding specific battles and entire wars even if they are not direct participants in battle. Even the most unbiased sources have inherent bias. Therefore, all literature about war is told from a specific perspective.

What I found interesting over this weekend is the portrayal of the enemy in modern films. Specifically, I examined how different countries with different types of governments portrayed the enemy forces. My findings accorded with my initial conceptions.

I compared how the Japanese in the American film "Pearl Harbor" was portrayed compared with how they were portrayed in the Chinese film "Battle of the Yalu River." In the 2001 Michael Bay film, the Japanese were portrayed with great dignity and honor. Although the film was obviously told from the perspective of the United States and almost the entire film is seen through the Americans eyes, during the scenes that show the Japanese, the audience is allowed to experience what they were feeling. Their military forces are seen as equal and even superior to the American counter parts in the movie and their commanders are portrayed with great courage. In truth, the Japanese won a great victory on December 7, 1941, at the movies showed that without bias. Although the audience is meant to experience patriotism and great sadness at the national tragedy, enough time is given to the Japanese, allowing the audience to also see the event from their point of view.

The same could not be said about the Chinese film. In this film, the Japanese are never shown on screen and it is obvious that not much time and effort was put into accurately portraying the Japanese fleet. The Chinese ships are seen as majestic hulks while the Japanese ships seem very shoddily made in the film. The film makes very feel that it is very ironic that the Chinese lost the battle. In reality, the Japanese ships were much more powerful that its Chinese counterparts. The defeat of the Chinese is not even shown clearly, as the attention is focused on a superior Chinese gunner who scores numerous hits on the Japanese flagship. Completely changing history, the film states that the Chinese ship ran out of ammunition and was sunk, but in reality, it was just outgunned and outmaneuvered. This movie is completely biased toward the Chinese and doesn't even portray the Japanese as a noble enemy.

Upon further reflection, the differences in portrayal of the enemy stems from the two different types of government in the United States and China. The USA has a free society with a government ruled by democracy. Impartiality is essential, so this quality is reflected in culture in films and other media. However, Chinese is ruled by a communist government and much effort is given to shape its people's thoughts. Therefore propaganda is important and films will also reflect such an inclination.

The Red Badge of Courage: Ch. 22-24

Armed with new self-confidence, Henry is full of energy as he prepares for what is the final battle described in the book. Henry is still angry at the officers who described his regiment as a group of "mule drivers." In this case, Henry is describing what he believes is a hypocrisy. The officers decide to send the men of the 304th regiment into a dangerous battle but also insults the men, which suggests that they are not skilled fighters. It would be very unwise to send these "unskilled" soldiers into an important battle. In the heat of the decisive battle for both the Union and Henry himself, the latter carries the flag valiantly. He is also completely caught in the moment that he cannot even sense what is happening around him. This exemplifies an unwavering concentration that no one would have thought would characterize Henry during his initial experiences in combat. Henry's actions before were completely dictated with superfluous thought and contemplation. His motivations were all determined by reason and logic. However, now Henry has the characterises of a good soldier. He acts on impulse and allows feelings and emotions to control his actions. Focused solely on winning the battle, Henry does not notice the men dying around him and the weakness of the regiment after so many men fall. When Henry finally notices, he only further strengthens his confidence by disregarding death. Death would only be Karma for the officers because they sent the regiment into the charge.

All seems lost as Henry's regiment rapidly shrinks. However, in a final burst of effort, the union troops burst through the confederate defenses. In a symbolic event, Wilson retrieves the enemy's flag from a dying soldier. this both signifies the victory of the Union troops and Wilson and Henry's victory over their initial fears. Henry reflects back on his actions in this and previous battles. Although he still criticises his "cowardly" actions from previous engagements, Henry is satisfied at his accomplishment in recent battles in which he exhibited the courage that he has so coveted since joining the Union Army. The weather plays an important role near the end of the story as Henry ponders. It is raining hard when Henry's mind is in conflict, but when he sees a glimmer of hope and imagines a utopian-like society, one ray of sunshine appears signifying the possibility of such a life for Henry after the war is over.

Throughout this novel, Stephen Crane portrays war in a neutral light. Unlike the blatantly negative portrayal of World War II by Joseph Heller, Crane expresses both the horrors of war and the glory that is possible during battle. The author believes that people who have not been involved in combat before usually have a overly positive stance on war but in reality this is a very romantic image. War is hard and death omnipresent and gruesome instead of honorable. However, war also allow people to gain courage through combat. The main character, Henry, is one who changes tremendously over the course of a few battles. At the end of the book, after Henry had won a decisive battle, he is proud of his actions. However, in his initial engagements, Henry was fearful of his life and decided to run instead of fight, a decision that he greatly regrets even after he gained his "courage."

The Red Badge of Courage: Ch. 20-21

Henry not only gains confidence but also a great ability to lead and inspire confidence in others. The confederate troops, greatly outnumbering and seemingly outmaneuvering the union troops faced a tough 304th regiment that would not retreat because of Henry. Henry bears the flag, which represent all the glory that the regiment stands for and bears it with confidence. He urges the other men to fight even though hope seems to have been lost. Still guided by anger, Henry desperately convinces himself that even if the enemy is destined to win the battle, he would make sure that they do not have an easy fight. Before, Henry had always contemplated and allowed reason to guide him. Now, purely guided by impulse, Henry is showing true courage in battle. Everything that happens in battle happens very quickly. There is no time to think. Rather, a solider just needs to be able to trust his instincts and just react not in order to be a hero but just to survive. This point is conveyed clearly by Henry's actions and corresponding motivations. When the regiment successfully holds back the Confederates, Henry and Wilson are exhilarated. The negativity that had surrounded the war within the two soldiers seem to have disappeared and a revitalized belief in glory is born. It is suggested that maybe the glory that the Ancient Greeks had acquired in battle was not just a myth but actually attainable by mortal men.

Anger seems to have taken a very important role in battle. I had not thought of emotions in this way before. I believed that battle caused emotions to run high, but it seems that this goes the opposite way too. Emotions can also drive the course of a battle. Emotions are natural human impulses that are felt very quickly unlike reason with takes a long period of time to comprehend. They can not only give armies an edge in the fighting, but also ultimately determine the victor of entire wars. I guess the saying "who wants it more" is not completely false. There is some truth to it when dealing with emotions and their effect on high stakes battles. Emotions, however, need to be collective in order for a whole army to gain an upper hand in battle.

The Red Badge of Courage: Ch. 17-19

There is a huge and unexpected shift in Henry's character in Chapter 17. Henry and other Union soldiers wait impatiently for the confederate troops to arrive. It seems that out of nowhere, Henry gains a tremendous will to fight. When the enemy swarms the field, Henry continuing fires and reloads without regard to anything that is happening around him. He is completely focused in shooting the enemy men without regard for his own life. Guided completely by anger, Henry doesn't even stop shooting well after the confederate troops retreat. Inadvertently, Henry becomes the heroic figure that he had wanted to be without even noticing. The fit of anger that guided him like a wild beast had very mysterious sources, but nevertheless gives Henry the image of a hero on the battlefield. At the end of the chapter, the weather clears and the sun shines, symbolizing the clear and resolute heart that Henry has developed in the course of the day.

The insult that Wilson and Henry's superiors only further increases the resolution within the two men, especially Henry. As their regiment, the 304th, charges in to battle, Henry is filled with pride. He sees their flag bearer killed and he and Wilson are the ones who picks it up and continues to charge. This action solidifies Henry's courage, something that only a day before, he was completely devoid of. Carrying the weight of the whole battle and figuratively, the entire union, in his hand, Henry charges valiantly forward against the Confederate troops. Henry's character changes dramatically in his second day of major combat. He had tried so hard to force himself to attain glory and courage before but failed miserably. However, guided by natural emotions, most predominantly anger, Henry is able to exhibit tremendous bravery.

The Red Badge of Courage: Ch. 15-16

Henry is in possession of an envelop that Wilson had told the former to keep in case Wilson was killed in action. He instructed Henry to deliver the envelop to Wilson's family. How, after having survived the initial battle, Henry ponders giving it back, but his feelings of pride and and necessity for self-assurance assert themselves. The envelop, which represents Wilson's weakness, gives Henry the assurance that he needs. It seems to represent his courage as he now does not hold any more fear. Although this could be the result of idealism asserting itself when Henry is not caught in battle, Henry seems to nevertheless gain confidence about himself. Ironically, he even justifies his retreated and dignified while that of the other men as cowardly even though only a day ago, Henry was the one feeling like a coward. When Wilson asks for his envelope back, Henry complies, but he still has the self-confidence that it has brought him. Henry, at this point feels better than his comrade Wilson, even though Wilson indirectly gave him his confidence.

When Henry and a group of soldiers are led to another battle, this confidence again wanes in Henry. It seems that Henry's constant struggle between courage and cowardice is completely dictated by his situation. This suggests that Henry does not truly possess any courage because to be courageous means to be strong regardless of the situation. Henry blames his superiors again for they lack of leadership ability to win battles, but is silenced by another soldier because he suddenly realizes that his "dishonorable" retreat from the battlefield might be revealed.

The Red Badge of Courage: Ch. 13-14

Still worried that he would be labeled as a coward, Henry walks gingerly toward his camp but is greatly startled when another soldier, Wilson, tells him to stop. It is here that the reader is informed that Henry actually did sustain a wound, a minor graze to the head, but still a wound. This suggests that throughout the day's events, Henry was so worried about his initial retreat that he didn't even pay too much attention to his wound. Ironically, it was a fear for his life and well being that caused him to retreat from the front lines. Although the injury was small, it was to the head, a very important are of the body. This suggests that Henry did after all receive a red badge of courage from his time in action that day. After being removed from the thick of battle, Henry finally calms down and attains a sense of self security again when Wilson tends to his wound.

Due to both physical and mental exhaustion, Henry feels terrible when he wakes up the next morning to fighting in the distance. The day is described as gloomy and misty, creating a dark mood and perhaps foreshadowing unfortunate events that are to take place that day in battle. Henry had acquired the lingering feeling of death the day before when he encountered the group of severely wounded soldiers in the field, and this feeling continues to haunt him. Being one of the first people to wake up, Henry sees all his comrades asleep and sees them all as corpses. Only when they rise does the entity of death temporarily leave the air around Henry's surroundings.

The Red Badge of Courage: Ch. 11-12

These chapter's delve deeper into Henry Flemming's internal conflict. Henry is still feeling tremendously guilty about retreating earlier from battle. After the ordeal with the group of wounded soldiers including one of his good friends, Henry witnesses a proud column of soldiers as they march into the battle. This sight very briefly give Henry true courage, but it arose inside him from impulse. Henry almost runs toward the front lines himself, but gives it a thought and decides not to go. Impulse pushed Henry to go, but reason held him back since he was in pain and both hungry and thirsty from the battle. In this bout of inner conflict, Henry's reason prevailed and consequently deprives him of the true courage that he so desperately wants on this occasion. This rationalization is very similar to an idea about human nature in Shakespeare's Hamlet. Hamlet is prevented from acting because of indecisiveness caused by contemplation. In a very famous speech, Hamlet states that too much though weakens the human resolve. Henry Flemming was resolved to charge with who he perceived as valiant soldiers, but after thinking and weighing the consequences and benefits, he decides to stay back and watch instead of risking his life on the front lines.

After deciding to stay behind to watch the battle, Henry again feels guilty about not entering the conflict because he believes that yet another opportunity to prove his courage has slipped him by. He tries to justify his actions with a fabricated excuse but cannot ultimately come up with one, a fact that greatly disturbs him. He even goes as far as to hope that his army looses the battle so that he can convince himself that he is clairvoyant and able to predict the futile attempt to the win the battle. However, he only further feels guilt, which causes him to believe that his comrads will equate his name with the word coward.

The Red Badge of Courage: Ch. 8-10

These chapters focus on an encounter with a group of severely wounded men affects Henry both emotionally and physically. After realizing his "mistake" in running away from teh front line, Henry is frightened by wounded soldier who asks him where he is wounded himself. Because he was not injured, Henry is scared because he believes that revealing that he was uninjured would reveal was he percieves as cowardice for running away. Therefore he tries to avoid the wounded man. Wounds, as Henry sees them, are "red badges of courage" because they are material proofs of courage and valor. Henry wishes that he did not run and instead was wounded so he too could have one.

Jim Cronklin's death, similar to Yossarian's experiences whe he lost friends while flying bombing missions, greatly troubles Henry. It will also be interesting to see if this death has the effect on Henry as Snowden's death had on Yossarian. Henry goes back in line, but at this point, his fear is slightly tempered by his anger that his friend was killed. Accompanying Henry is another heavily injured man, who Henry abandons out of impulse. Once again, Henry feels insecure because he knows that the man will likely die if he is left alone without help. The man seems delusional and irrational. In these few chapters, Henry is futher confronted with the realities of war. This is also the first instance in which the reader is introduced to the concept of a "red badge of courage." Greatly perturbing his emotions, the sight of the wounded men and especially the death of his friend cause Henry to be insecure about his motivations and unable to muster up the courage that he so values.

The Red Badge of Courage: Ch. 4-7

Henry Fleming gets his first taste of the unpleasant realities of war in these chapters and they are nothing like the glory filled combat that he had expected. During the initial charge of the Confederate troops, Henry feels as though he is part of a machine doing his role in the functioning whole. As he continually shoots and shoots, his pride increases and his fears slowly subside. When the enemy retreats, the union regiment lets out a cheer of victory and Henry seems satisfied that he had retained his courage.

During the second charge, the inner struggle between his courage and fear intensifies. When other in his regiment turn and retreat, Henry does not feel that he is part of a whole again because the whole is losing its parts and his fear gains the upper hand. He too decides to run, a decision that he regrets as soon as the battle is over. As he is running, overwhelming fear takes over and he believes that he will be killed at any moment. His negative sentiment toward his superiors are renewed when he runs past the general directing the battle. Henry is stunned that the Union troops hold off the Confederate attack and immediately questions his actions. Tension builds within him as he tries to comfort himself by unsuccessfully telling himself that an army's best interest is the preservation of its soldier's lives. He is pacified slightly when he throws pine cone at a squirrel causing the animal to hurry away because it shows a natural desire to survive. When Henry sees the body of a dead soldier, his comfort is immediately stripped away and his fear quickly engulfs his mind once again.

These chapters offer insight into the concept of true courage. Henry initially believes that he possessed true courage (before he sees battle), but when he experiences the life-threatening situation, he allows his fear to take over and decides to run away from danger. True courage can thus be defined as the ability to overcome fear and perform an action despite knowledge of the consequences of that action. At this point, Henry still does not possess true courage.

The Red Badge of Courage: Ch. 1-3

Taking place almost a century before the events of Catch-22, those of Stephen Crane's The Red Badge of Courage, tell the story of a very different type of war. The book, about the Civil war, centers around a young private in a regiment of the Union army named Henry Flemming, who as of the beginning of the book's events, has not yet seen any combat. One of the major themes of the book that is revealed in these first few chapters is glory. In chapter 1, another soldier named Jim Conklin spreads word that the regiment will see battle the next day arousing both excitement and disbelief. Henry hears the conversations and reflects upon the reason why he joined the union army. He desires the glory of battle that the ancient warriors of antiquity achieved through their battle of valor and questions whether it is realistic to expect this kind of honor. He believes that ordinary life has weakened the human instinctual abilities and the only combat can once again bring those skills to the surface. Although he was driven by valor, Henry's mother did not share this sentiment. She believed that her son was too unrealistic, but allowed him to go to battle without worry of coming home.

Since the many months of inaction, Henry has lost many of his ideals about glory. Life seems so monotonous to him that he begins to question his courage. He even wonders if he would desert a battle just to save his own life, something that his mother specifically told him not to do. When the first battle is finally imminent, Henry again questions his courage. Before, he believed that dying honorably as a war hero was the most coveted honor that a man could hope to achieve. However, when death is likely, Henry wavers. Practicality takes over, which forces his courage to stay resolute because Henry realizes that because of so many other soldiers running around him, even if he wanted to save his own life, he would not be able to in the thick of battle.

In chapter 3, Henry seems to share some of Yossarian's sentiments in Catch-22. When the gunfire gets closer, Henry Flemming starts denounce his commanding officers because he believes that they are leading them into inevitable death. In Catch-22, Yossarian seemed to always think of war in this light, but Henry had a very romantic view of fighting before the actual combat began. It will be interesting to see if Henry becomes more like Yossarian as he experiences more of the realities of war (death, carnage, etc.).

Catch22: Chapter 40-42

These final chapters of Catch-22 resolve some of the major issues caused by World War II in Yossarian's life. After Yossarian is arrested in Rome, he is brought in front of his commanding officers, who finally offer him the option of going home even though the reoccuring logical loophole Catch-22 does not allow to without consessions. However, he would have to act as a puppet for the Colonels, which would entail him betraying the men he served with. Ironically, this catch is not enough to keep Yossarian from considering the opportunity and actually decides to take the deal. However, Nately's whore decides to stab him again (which amost mortally wounds him again). This actually turns out to be the experience that makes him realize his mistake in taking the deal.

In the hospital, Yossarian is semi-conscious and encounters his previously deceased friends who make him realize that betraying them is morally wrong even if it means that he gets to return home. When he wakes up in the hospital he finds out that his only remaining living friend is dead, he now has nothing left. This actually acts as the final factor in helping him determine his decision. When he confronts the colonels, he standing up to them and assertively tells them that he will not take the deal. At the very end of the book, Yossrian decides to run to Sweden. Heller runs into the distance which symbolizes his freedom from all of the burdens of war, an appropriate ending to Catch-22. Throughout the whole book, the effect of war is the most important idea. The protagonist, Yossarian, has a very cynical view of war and by induction, human nature in general because of the horrible experiences that he has encountered. Death is an unavoidable reality in war and Yossarian is greatly affected by the death of his close comrads. Author Joseph Heller, effectively achieves his purpose of portraying the realities of war.

Catch22: Chapter37-39

This chapters showcase a change in Yossarian's characters. Before, he was always displeased at the wartime policies of this superior officers. He was utterly disgusted by his Colonel's policies of raising the number of missions necessary to leave the battlefield (effectiveness keeping all of his men in the warzone until the war is over). However, Yossarian always followed orders and flew the missions. In chapter 37, he decides to stop flying missions and for once his officers are actually understanding because Yossarian's friend Nately was killed. As time goes on Yossarian does still earn the enmity of his officers because he refuses to fly even non-combat missions.

An interesting break from the policies of war occurs in Chapter 38, when Yossrian encounters' Nately's female friend in Rome. She attempts to murder him, which is a classic example of "killing the messenger." This experience, which, severely injures Yossarian (stab wounds) physically, compounds to his cynical view of war and thus human nature. It is very ironic that Yossrian, fater fighting many battles, is unscratched, yet is so severely wounded in a non-combat related incident. It seems that the war has completely drained his ability to normally interact socially with others outside the battlefield.

The Stargate Connection

War is a common theme in many modern television programs. Science fiction shows especially those that involve extra-terrestrial beings give us a completely new perspective on the concept of war because they enlarge the battlefield to no just anthropocentric matters but also intersteller conflicts. New standards and morality questions undoubedly arise. Specifically, the series Stargate sg1 and Stargate Atlantis offer many good insights into both diplomacy and armed conflict between different races living on different planets. As a brief overview, the stargate universe is based heavily on Earth's mythology. A member of the parasitic race (a major antagonist) called the Goa'uld, Ra arrives in Ancient Egypt and abducts many primitive humans for slave labor on other worlds. The Goa'uld are in possession of an Ancient(another race) device called the stargate, which enables the instanteous travel both matter and energy through an established wormhole between two locations in the Milkyway Galaxy. There is a rebellion on earth and the Ra is banished from the planet. As ar result there are many humans living on other worlds in the galaxy who are in various stages of technological development in the present day. In the series Stargate sg1, colonel Jack Oneill portrayed by Richard Deal Anderson has a tendency to try to impose the ways of earth on the people from other worlds. He even goes as far to try to break thousand year old rituals held by the Jaffa (genetically engineered humans). Acting as his foil, Daniel Jackson, a civilian archeologist, usually respects the traditions of other races and their sovereignty. This showcases a sharp contrast in methodologies of approaching both diplomatic relations and war in space. In the series Stargate Atlantis, diplomacy and the war between humans and the Wraith (a hostile alien race that needs to feed on the human life force to survive) is even more pressing than in sg1 because the plot takes place in a completely different galaxy. Aspects of human wartime and peaceful diplomacy are used such as the Geneva Convention. Major John sheppard, the chief military officer of Atlantis (the base of operations in the Pegasus galaxy), tends to rejects earth laws in the war against the wraith. Once he sites that if the Wraith were present at the the Geneva Convention, they would start feeding on all the delegates.

Catch-22 Chapters 32-36

These chapters elaborate on three major reoccurring ideas from the story - death, religion, and corruption (exemplified by Milo). Chapter 32 begins very graphically when it is stated the Kid Sampson's (who was killed by a propeller) legs are still lying on the beach where his body was ripped apart. This image adds to the previous image of Snowden's death that haunts Yossarian. Although it seems that death is greatly troubling Yossarian, it seems to have become a very integral part of his person (due to the war). When new soldiers move in with Yossarian and suddenly remove Mudd's belongings, which symbolized death, he suddenly feels uncomfortable. It seems that he no longer sees the tent as his dwelling. He quickly absconds to Rome.

The chaplain appears once again in Chapter 36 and seems to have gained much more confidence that before. Ultimately however, he is still powerless to influence any of the happenings around the military base. The chaplain exhibits strong emotions for the first time as he becomes infuriated by the accusations of his crimes. He then goes to confront a military official, Colonel Korn, about the number of missions that a soldier much fly in order to be grounded, which seems to rise interminably. This uncharacteristic bout of confident, however, is futile as the colonel informs him that a new general is taking over the operations, and blatantly states that there is nothing anyone can do to change there policy for the number of missions.

Milo also returns in Chapter 35. He seems to be so conniving and powerful that he is able to use logic to turn other people in his favor. Through deception, he is able to get Colonel Cathcart to ground him for all future missions. Heller presents teh great disparity of power between the corrupt (having all the power) and the honest (having almost no power) to show the tremendouly negative effects that the war have caused even upon some of the most fundamental assumptions about human life.

Catch-22 Chapters 23-28

Author Joseph Heller creates a very interesting character, Milo, as a foil to the other American soldiers fighting World War II. Milo controls so much of the black market that he is actually working on both sides (American and German), which at times undermines the American bombing operations. He seems to be driven entirely by money and greed, without regard for his country. Milo even contracts German anti-aircraft guns to shoot down American planes, one of which was flown by a soldier who lived in Yossarian's tent. That soldier, Mudd, was killed and his belonging have kept the "stink of death" close to Yossarian. I wonder what he will do later in the story? Will he get caught and be charged for treason, or will he continue his less than honorable ways undetected throughout the war? More is revealed about the chaplain in chapter 25. Ironically, everyone seems to be very uncomfortable in his presence even though he is there to use his faith to comfort the soldiers. No one allows his into their lives and everyone shuns him. Even he begins to wonder about the existence of god. Through this encounter with the chaplain, Heller shows the readers that the war has truly taken its toll on even some of the most fundamental beliefs that many during times of peace taken for granted. War seems to overshadow even religion for a man who's occupation is dedicated to preaching the existence of a higher being. Situational irony is very prevalent in chapters 27-28. Yossarian feigns mental illness once again and this time the psychiatrist actually believes him and decides to send him home, something that he had wanted for a very long time. However, Yossarian switched his identity with a lower ranked man before the ordeal in hopes of getting sent home and as a result, that other man is sent home, while he stays on the front. Nothing seems to go in favor of the main character, which futher strengthens his cynicism.

Catch-22 Chapter 17-22

Heller introduces the element of religion into his perspective on World War II. Colonel Cathcart wants a chaplain, the religious figure, to give a prayer before each bombing mission to ensure the success of the mission. However, it seems that the colonel does not care too much for the lives of his men, as evidenced by his habit of continually raising the number of missions that one must fly until he is allowed to go home. Therefore, the chaplain objects and the practice is stopped because he says that god might seek to punish the colonel. When the chaplain does address the issue of the missions, the colonel ignores him. Later, when Corporal Whitcomb encounter the Chaplain, he is very hostile to the religious man, who then feels horrible that he cannot use his faith to improve the moral of the troops. The futility with which the chaplain tries to improve the lives of the men offers insight into the men's view of religious. It seems that religious has become an after-thought for the soldiers after they have seen so much death and destruction. If god really did exist, it would not have allowed the atrocities of war to occur in the first place. In chapter 22, Yossarian's "moment of truth" is revealed to the reader. Before the war began, Yossarian, like any other soldier, does not know what to expect. After seeing the horrible conditions that the war has brought, his opinions about it changed drastically. The one moment that completely turned him against the war was the mission in which one of his comrades was killed in action. That experience tormented him and haunted him for many days, which has developed his cynical and pessimistic personality.

Catch-22 Chapters 14-16

These three chapters showcase both a very prevalent technique that author Joseph Heller employs to negatively portray war and a lighter moment that takes place off the battlefield. After all of the hindrances both natural and artificial, Yossarian's bombing squadron is given the green light to bomb Bologna. Yossarian, still disgusted at the war and strongly believing that high casualties will result as it had before, orders his plane to desert the battle. Ironically, when he returns, he is surprised to discover that the bombing mission was a success that was met with almost no resistance. In this case, Yossarian's anti romantic view of war is not only pointless but also incurs upon himself a serious reprimand from his superiors. It almost costs in his life later on because he might not have missed a key target that called for a second bomb run, one that was met with great resistance and resulted in many fatalities (Yossarian luckily survived). Off the battlefield, Yossarian meets a young woman named Luciana, whom he quickly gets involved with. This is one of the lighter and more humorous moments in the story. This brief relationship both shows a side of Yossarian that the reader has not yet been exposed to and brings up another example of Catch-22. Yossarian is involved with a great war and likely has been for a long time (which allowed his current cynical perspective to develop). It seems that he uses this relationship to get away from the realities of war, but Heller causes the relationship to process strangely to show the reader the toll that war has taken on Yossarian's social abilities. The latest instance of Catch-22 can be seen in the relationship. Yossarian expresses a desire to marry Luciana (although they had only known each other for a few days) and proposes. However, Luciana rejects him on the basis that he is crazy to want to marry a woman who had already lost her virginity. Therefore, he does not actually desire to marry her. I find the concept of Catch-22 both very intriguing and a little baffling at times. I have heard it many times in other media such as TV shows but never new what it meant until I starting to read this book. I have already gained much insight into Catch-22 and the logic behind it and I hope that more instances of its application present itself later in the story. It looks like I will not be able to follow my original essential question for this book, but it will likely give me a broader view of war due to its very unique perspective. World War II was usually glorified, but this story completely removes all of the heroism and honor usually associated with fighting World War II.

Catch-22 Chapters 10 - 13

In these chapters, Heller focuses on the seeming inevitability of death during war. Although it seems obvious that with war comes death, I had not considered this perspective during my project yet. Because Heller focuses on the negatives of war throughout the his whole book so far, this topic is appropriate. In chapter 10, Yossarian reflects about a soldier named Mudd who was killed in action.Yossarian's tent still has his belongings and he believes that the tent is continually tarnished with the essence of death. This serve as a constant reminder to Yossarian that every time he steps onto a plane, he might never return.

Yossarian and the other soldiers under the command of Colonel Cathcart, have been volunteered by the commander for a very dangerous mission - the bombing of Bologna. Because of the importance of this mission, many sick men are not able to be grounded by the doctors and one of them expresses his cynical sentiment. The doctors sees the pointlessness of treating sick and injured men because after they are treated, they will be put back into active duty and will probably die anyways.

On the actual day of the mission, inclement weather delays the dangerous bombing runs and and the soldiers all hope that it doesn't stop raining, further strengthening the negative portrayal of war. Clearly none of the men want to be fighting the war. Yossarian, even goes as far as to poison the men's food to make them sick and unable to fly.

Many other texts that I have read about war, especially World War II, have glorified the concept of victory, often neglecting many of the atrocities that happened (not true of literature about World War I). However, Catch-22 so far has completely broken from that trend. Every member of the airmen camp have varying degrees of cynicism, ranging from slightly negative to people like Yossarian, who would even endanger the battle plans in order to be exempt from flying missions (he moved the line in the command post to behind enemy lines in order to trick the officers into believing that Bologna had already been captured).

Evolution of War(part1)

Based on prior knowledge on that provided by my Literature book in the sections about the Anglo-Saxons, Middle Ages, and Renaissance, I have been able to divide the purpose of war into a few major categories throughout Western history. The timelines are noticeably different when we talk about war in the eastern hemisphere. Anglo-Saxon times: War was usually waged for basic survival necessities. Throughout Europe, especially in the land that we now call England, wars raged almost continuously but were all minor in scale. Not much organization had been put into place in fighting war and they usually lasted short period of time although many following each other in succession. Strategies were generally disregarded. There were also not much in terms of organized military. Usually all the men and even some women from a village would fight all the people from anther village. Middle Ages: The reasons for war became more complex as basic necessities were becoming less of an issue. With the feudal system in place, people were generally able to live although great differences in wealth were present between the lords and peasants. Many different religions developed to maturity during this time and the conflict of ideas led to great wars fought between organized and trained armies. War were now not being fought by the ordinary men or woman in rare cases. Renaissance: As society developed further, war became an even more complex affair. Many different reasons now arose from the conflict of interests between different states from far away since improved communications greatly increased the perceived "size" of the world. The rejection of religion also became a leading reason for war. Technological developments also changed the face of war as weapons became deadlier, almost eliminating the effectiveness of the valiant knights of the middle ages. Knights in the renaissance became performers rather than warriors. I will continue this post regarding the evolution of war as I study further about the periods of history in my English literature book. After reading the introduction of each period, I will post the relavant details regarding war from that section.

Chapters 6-9

More insight into Heller's portrayal of war is revealed in these chapters. It is commonly said that something that is enjoyable and fun is over in the blink of an eye no matter how long the event actually lasted. In of the other hand, something that is dull, boring, and even pointless can seem like an eternity even if only one second of real time actually passed. Through Hungry Joe's eyes, war is something that falls in the category of the latter. Hungry Joe has flown many tours of duty and has flown the required number of bombing missions for each one. However, his superior, Colonel Cathcart always raises the number of missions necessary before one is allowed to go home so that Joe is never able to go home. It is similar to the cliche that one can never win a race or even finish that race if the finish line is continually moved. This portrays war as a interminable and pointless journey that takes its toll on the human mind and never seems to end. In face, the mental toll that the everlasting war has taken on Joe is apparent through his nightmares which subside when he has the faintest hope that he might be going home. That hope is always crushed instantly when the number of missions is increased. Although the characters introduced so far have all exhibited very different personality traits, one common thread that seems to run through them is a sense of disillusionment over the war, which has seemingly gone on forever. This sentiment is especially shared by Major Major Major, whose name results in much ridicule and much of his own distaste for life. The picture of war that Heller has painted so far in Catch-22 is not glorifying at all. Although not graphic, the realities of war are portrayed in a very negative light.

Chapters 4-5

After reading these chapters, I am really getting a sense of how Joseph Heller is trying to portray war as a means of solving problems. After five chapters, Heller still does not mention any of the reasons why the war is being fought both general and specific. He also deliberately neglects mentioning any of the wartime strategies themselves and focuses solely on Yossarian's view of war as a solider. It seems as it war has affected his sanity, but it is also unclear whether he is lucid or not after the mentioning of the contradictory rule "catch-22." Chapter 5 was the first instance in which "catch-22" was mentioned in the entire book. I am only beginning to grasp the meaning of this rule in respect to the story, but page 55 really made my ponder the significance of "catch-22." Yossarian desperately wants to stop flying bombing missions and every time he is doing so, he is always terrified for his life. Therefore, he always asks his superiors to ground him so he doesn't have to fly anymore. A pilot can be grounded if he is deemed insane by catch-22 as it would endanger the crew and mission. However, Yossarian is asking to be grounded. The act of asking is a sane act because almost no one wanted to flying bombing missions by common sense. Therefore, because Yossarian is adhering to reason, he is not insane and cannot be grounded from flying. I look forward to finding more about this rule and how it can be applying to other aspects of life in the coming chapters. Hopefully, I can find a better connection between the rule and my essential question soon.

The Art of War post 2(originally a comment)

This book, which is a tranlation of the original text, should be a relatively short read for me. I could not get my hands on a copy of Tzu's actual words nor would I be able to read it if I did. After completing the first few chapters of this book, I find that the translator's voice is very dry and dull. He/she uses very simple language that is accesible to an average reader, but does not contain much rhetorical impact, something that I am almost certain Sun Tzu had. The ancient Chinese were very conscious of the art of rhetoric and words were chosen very carefully to effectively invoke the most appropriate response from a reader. With this translation, I only seem to get "what" is being said and seem to lose all of "how it's being said. Therefore this translator only appeals to my logos and not my pathos.This story makes very prominent use of the cause and effect rhetorical mode to appeal to a reader's logos. In these first few chapters, Tzu focuses heavily on the effects of war on the state that is waging it. He presents many negative consequences that can befall a state while waging a long war, which imforms a reader NOT to do certain things. Tzu not only makes use of the simple cause and effect relationship, but also employs complex causual chains to illustrate his points.